Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering is an artificial manipulation of DNA in order to modify an organism or population of organisms. They can take over the cell by injecting their DNA into it like cloning but with altered DNA, which the scientists do in the lab. They can also change just one small part of the DNA. They can reproduce certain cells to make useful substances. Through recombinant-DNA techniques, bacteria have been created that are capable of synthesizing human insulin, human interferon, human growth hormone, a hepatitis-B vaccine, and other medically useful substances. The change in the DNA that removes genetic disorders will make that the person more functional. There are people who believe that there are issues with genetic engineering. They are able to genetically alter animals and sell the meat without labeling it, which may make people concerned. They may eventually alter human DNA to make the perfect human with the best of all traits. People would be opposed to this speeding up of evolution, but in some ways it could be seen as good. Such as people could avoid being affected by a disorder, or they could all have a higher intellect.

1. What could be some possible problems with genetic engineering?

2. What could be some positives to it?

3. Would you support it or be against it? Why or why not?

Pedigree Charts

A pedigree chart is a diagram that shows a family history and represent genetic relationships. It is almost the same thing as a family tree. The more complicated version is used in genetics as a way to determined how a certain genetic disease was distributed through the family. It can also be used to determine where inherited traits (such as attached/unattached earlobes, dimples, freckles, naturally curly/straight hair, hitchhiker’s thumb, color-blindness, Widow’s peak, hair and skin color) come from. Usually genetic counselors will use this chart to help couples/families that are worried about passing genetic conditions on to their children, or people that are concerned about inheriting adult onset genetic conditions.




In the chart, squares represent males and circles represent females. Horizontal lines connecting the two indicate mating. Vertical lines extending down from those represent their children. The oldest generation is shown at the top, all the way to the current youngest generation, which is at the bottom. Any shaded or colored shapes represent the individuals affected with the disease, or simply the people that have a certain inherited trait. Each row is a generation, which is represented by the roman numerals in each picture.




An autosomal recessive disorder means two copies of an abnormal gene must be present in order for the disease or trait to develop. Recessive inheritance means both genes in a pair must be defective to cause disease. People with only one defective gene in the pair are considered carriers. But they can pass the abnormal gene to their children. If you are born to parents who both carry an autosomal recessive change (mutation), you have a 1 in 4 chance of getting the malfunctioning genes from both parents and developing the disease. You have a 50% chance of inheriting one abnormal gene. If a disease is autosomal dominant, it means you only need to get the abnormal gene from one parent in order for you to inherit the disease. Dominant inheritance means an abnormal gene from one parent is capable of causing disease, even though the matching gene from the other parent is normal. The abnormal gene "dominates" the pair of genes. If just one parent has a dominant gene defect, each child has a 50% chance of inheriting the disorder. Recessive inheritance occurs when both matching genes must be abnormal to produce disease. If only one gene in the pair is abnormal, the disease does not show up or is mild. Someone who has one abnormal gene (but no symptoms) is called a carrier. A carrier can pass this abnormal gene to their children.
Here is a video you can watch that explains it a bit more:
http://www.5min.com/Video/Pedigree-Chart-Problem-Review-151018111



Questions:
1. Explain the relationship in this pedigree chart(above), using words that describe generation, gender, parents, children, and who has the inherited traits.


2. In which ways can a pedigree chart help a married couple who is thinking of having children?


3. Is it possible that the pedigree above is for an autosomal recessive disorder? Why or why not?

Blood Types

A blood type is a classification of blood based on antigentic substances found on the surface of red blood cells. Depending on your blood many different antigens may be present on your cells. There are 4 main blood groups A, B, AB and O, of which group O+ is the most common and AB being the least common. The blood type is determined by proteins called antigens found on the surface of red blood cells. If you have the antigen A on the red blood cells then you have got type A blood. When B antigen is present, you have type B blood, when both A and B are present, you have type AB blood. When neither are present you have type O blood.
Another blood group system involves Rhesus factors. The name Rhesus comes from the Rhesus monkeys in which the protein was first discovered. Rhesus factor D, the most important, is found in the blood of 85% of people, they are known as Rhesus positive. The remaining 15% are Rhesus negative. Individuals who are homozygous dominant (DD) or heterozygous (Dd) are Rh+. Those who are homozygous recessive (dd) are Rh- (they do not have the key Rh antigens).

Questions:
1. Why is the Rhesus factor very important during pregnancy?
2. What is the “Universal Donor” and explain what the term “universal donor” is.
3. Is it possible for a person to have B blood types when one parent has type A and one has type AB? Explain or show offspring from this cross.

Blood Types

A blood type is a classification of blood based on antigenic substances found on the surface of red blood cells. Depending on your blood group, many different antigens may be present on your cells. Your blood type is determined by a combination from both of your parent’s blood types. One of the main reasons for having blood types is to prevent problems during blood transfusions. If the transfusion goes wrong the side effects can be kidney failure, shock, and in extreme cases death. However, there are tests that can be performed to prevent a reaction from occurring. Cross-matching blood is an example of one of these tests. Cross-matching blood is a way of telling whether your blood is compatible with your donor’s blood. A technician will mix the blood types to check if they form clumps. If no clumps are visible, the donor’s blood will be acceptable.

There are eight common blood types. They are as follows, O-,O+,A-,A+,B-,B+,AB-,AB+. The blood type AB- is the rarest group, 1:167 have this type. O+ is the most common blood type with 38% of people having it. People with the blood type O are known as universal donors and in emergencies can donate to anyone. Also, individuals with the blood type AB can receive RBC’s from any blood type. These individuals are often known as universal recipients.

1. Do you think that someday it will be possible to complete a blood transfusion with any blood type without suffering from a reaction?

2. Why is it that individuals with the antigen system hh can only receive blood safely from other hh donors?

3. Is it possible for a person's blood type to change throughout their life? If so explain how.

genetices (blood types)

Distinct molecules called agglutinogens ( type A blood cells) are attached to the surface of red blood cells. There are two different types of agglutinogens, type “A” and type “B”. Each type has different properties. The ABO blood type classification system uses the presence or absence of these molecules to categorize blood into four types.

Another level of specificity is added to blood type by examining the presence or absence of the Rh protein. Each blood type is either positive “+” (has the Rh protein) or negative “-” (no Rh protein). For example, a person whose blood type is “A positive” (A +), has both type A and Rh proteins on the surface of their red blood cells.
When conducting a blood transfusion, it is important to carefully match the donor and recipient blood types. If the donor blood cells have surface molecules that are different from those of the recipient, antibodies in the recipient’s blood recognize the donor blood as foreign. This triggers an immune response resulting in blood clotting. If the donor blood cells have surface molecules that are the same as those of the recipient, the recipient’s body will not see them as foreign and will not mount an immune response.

QUESTIONS::::::

1) what would happen if the blood donors blood types do not match each other??


2)what is the RH factor? why is it significant?

3) how many different blood types are there and name them all.

Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction is a form of reproduction popular in single cell organisms. Asexual reproduction does not involve, meiosis, so it does not produce sex cells. Asexual reproduction requires less energy because they don’t have to find their mate and fertilize the egg. This form of reproduction allows the species to reproduce faster, multiplying their quantity. Though a problem with asexual reproduction is that the product of the reproducer is exactly like their parent, creating little diversity, so a species could easily be wiped out.

Two major forms of asexual reproduction are budding and binary fission. Budding happens when the “daughter” grows off of the “mother” and the daughter grows into another plant. Binary fission is when an organism splits into two equal halves.

1. Why do you think asexual reproduction is popular among single cell organisms?
2. What are some single cell organisms that use asexual reproduction.
3. What kind of enviroment would be best for asexual reproduction?

Types of Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction is when a single parent passes copies of all of is genes to each of its offspring. Both prokaryotes an eukaryotes can undergo this type of reproduction. The individuals produced during asexual reproduction are clones of their parent. There are several types of asexual reproduction. These are some of the different types:
1. Binary Fission
2. Fragmentation
3. Budding
Binary fission is when a parent separates into two or more individuals of equal size. Fragmentation is similar to binary fission, but in fragmentation the parent separates into several pieces. It is also different because not all of the fragments turn into complete adults during fragmentation. Budding is the next type of asexual reproduction. Budding occurs when a new individual splits off of the existing parent. Usually the bud breaks away from its parent but on some occasions the bud will stay attached to the parent. It is possible for the parent to become the host for a large group of buds.

1. Find two other types of asexual reproduction and explain what they are.
2. After finding these other two types find a plant or animal that reproduces that way and also find one for each of the previously listed types.
3. Explain why it would not be possible for humans to undergo asexual reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction vs. Sexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction is the formation of new individuals from the cells of a single parent. This results in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent. It is more common in plants than animals. Asexual reproduction occurs much faster than sexual reproduction because it does not require the formation of gametes or the need for fertilization. One of the many advantages of asexual reproduction is that when the population density is low, they don't have to search for a mate because they can reproduce by themselves. Some species alternate between sexual and asexual reproduction depending on conditions. Asexual reproduction is much less complicated.

1.) What are the 3 main types of asexual reproduction?
2.) Are there any consequences to asexual reproduction?
3.) Why is asexual reproduction more common in plants than animals?