DNA Fingerprinting

DNA fingerprinting is An individual's unique sequence of DNA base pairs, determined by exposing a sample of the person's DNA to molecular probes, also called genetic fingerprint.DNA is the stuff in you that makes you different from everybody else, because nobody else has the same DNA as you. DNA fingerprinting can be used in a multiple uses. From finding your biological mother to solving a crime scene. Your fingerprint is huge compared to your DNA so it is easier to identify it. The possiblities are endless with DNA fingerprinting. In the near future we might beable to find out so much mroe using DNA fingerprinting. Gel Electrophoresis is is a technique used for the separation of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA), or protein molecules using an electric field applied to gel matrix. This is usually done to seperate your DNA in order to gain information, also can be used with DNA cloning, or sequencing.

1). What is one other thing that can be done using DNA fingerprinting?



2). Why is DNA fingerprinting accurate?



3). DNA fingerprinting is considered to be 99.9 % accurate, name three scenario's where it would not be accurate?

Genetic Engineering Concerning Humans

Human genetic engineering is the modification of a human's gentotype with the purpose of choosing the phenotype of a newborn or changing the existing pheotype of a child or adult. This idea gives promising hopes of curing genetic diseases like cystic fibrosis and making people more immune to viruses. Some experts believe that genetic engineering could be used to change physical appearance, metabolism, and even improve mental abilities like memory and intelligence. For now though, these uses are considered science fiction.

Ho Ho Ho MERRRRRY CHRISTMAS
Questions:
1. Explain the history of human genetic engineering. HEY THERE

2. What are the pros of human genetic engineering and what exactly could it achieve and what are the cons of human genetic engineering and why is it so controversial? HOW ART THOU?

3. What are your views on human genetic engineering? (I expect a detailed paragraph por favor) HOPE YOU'RE ENJOYING YOUR LIFE THERE CHUMMY
HE HE HE HOW CLEVER AM i?

DNA Structure

The two strands of the double helix are anti-parallel, which means that they run in opposite directions. The backbone of a double helix is made of sugar-phosphate. The backbone can be thought of as the sides of a ladder, whereas the bases in the middle form the steps; also known as rungs of the ladder. Each rung is composed of two base pairs, either an adenine-thymine pair that form a two-hydrogen bond together, or a cytosine-guanine pair that form a three-hydrogen bond. The base pairing is thus restricted. This restriction is essential when the DNA is being copied. When DNA-helix is spread out in two long stretches of sugar-phosphate backbone with a line of free bases sticking up from it. Each half will then be the template for a new, complementary strand. Biological machines inside the cell put the corresponding free bases onto the split molecule and also "proof-read" the result to find and correct any mistakes. After the doubling, this gives rise to two exact copies of the original DNA molecule. The coding regions in the DNA strand, the genes, make up only a fraction of the total amount of DNA. The DNA stretches that flank the coding regions are called introns, and consist of non-coding DNA. Today, biologists and geneticists believe that this non-coding, also known as introns; in DNA may be essential in order to expose the coding regions and to regulate how the genes are expressed.


1. What is the backbone of the double helix made of?

2. What is essential when the DNA is being copied?

3. What are introns essential for in DNA?

Experiments with DNA Discoveries

Frederick Griffith

• His experiment involved mice and 2 types of pneumonia ( a virulent kind & a non-virulent kind)
• the virulent pneumonia injection + mouse= it ended up dying.
• the non-virulent pneumonia injection+ mouse= ended up living
• He then heated up the virulent disease & killed it , then injected it into another mouse, it ended up living.
• Lastly he heated up the virulent & non-virulent pneumonia, then injected it into another mouse, it ended up dying.
• Griffith discovered the passing on of the inheritance molecule was what he called "transformation".

James Watson & Francis Crick

• Watson and Crick used a picture of crystallized DNA to put together a model of DNA.
• They found out that if you paired Thymine with Adenine and Guanine with Cytosine, the DNA would be uniformed.
• Their model showed a double helix with bases of nucleotide connecting the 2 strands.

Oswald Avery

• Avery followed up on Griffith's experiment.
• He destroyed the lipids, ribonucleic acids, carbohydrates, & proteines of the virulent pneumonia. Resulting in transformation
• He then destoryed the DNA, and transformation did not occur.
• Avery discovered the inheritance molecule (DNA).

Questions

1. Name another experiment dealing with DNA and what did they discover?

2. What is transformation?

3. Who also contributed to the discovery of the model of DNA?

DNA Mutations/Insertion Mutation/Myotonic Dystrophy

There are several types of DNA Mutations that can occur. These range in many different categories such as Substitution, Insertion, Deletion, and Frameshift. I chose to research DNA Insertion more in depth. This form of mutation occurs when one or more nucleotides are inserted into a sequence. If a number of inserted bases are not a multiple of 3, it will cause a frameshift resulting in serious consequences. Non-frameshifting insertions however may cause diseases. One disease that I chose to research further was Myotonic Dystrophy. This disease is a result of Non-frameshifting instertions. Myotonic Dystrophy is a chronic, slowly progressing, highly variable inherited multisystemic disease. This disease causes the weakening of muscles, heart conduction defects, and endocrine changes. This disease is categorized into two different disease types. Type 1 and type 2, type 1 being more severe and type 2 being mild to moderate. Type 1 occurs in nearly 98% of the cases of Myotonic Dystrohpy while type 2 makes up the remaining 2%. Some symptoms that occur with this disease are severe muscle pain, muscle fatigue, and delayed learning in regards to language and behavior. This disease also causes people to become insulin resistant, meaning there isn’t an adequate amount of insulin in the body. Other symptoms that are present in this disease can occur at birth. Type 2 or the milder version of Myotonic Dystrophy has been found to be present during many births causing congenital defects to developing fetuses. This symptom has yet to be found in Type 1 Myotonic Dystrophy. Myotonic dystrophy is a genetic condition which is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern and thus will be passed along to 50% of a carrier's offspring, on average. There are currently no known treatments for Myotonic Disorder due to the plethora of symptoms.

1. Explain another type of DNA Mutation.
2. What is another disease caused by DNA Insertion and explain it.
3. When a disease is autosomal dominant what doe this mean?

DNA Mutation

DNA

Composed of two strands that wrap around each other, the double helix.

The DNA strand is made up of four letters, G A T and C.

G stands for Guanine

A stands for Adenine

T stands for Thymine

C stands for Cytosine

DNA Mutation

Substitution

Where one letter is exchanged for another.

Deletion

When a section of DNA is lost

Insertion

Extra pairs of DNA are randomly added

Frameshift

DNA coding is in sections tha are three letters long, frameshifting is when the first letter is lost, but the sections will remain in 3-letter parts.

More easily explained using words, The fat cat sat = Hef at cats at

Causes of Mutations

DNA fails to copy accurately

DNA is influenced

Radiation, chemicals

1.W1.What are some effects of DNA mutation?

2.H2.How is it possible to have multiple sets of DNA?

3. How can a DNA mutation affect health and development?

Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering is an artificial manipulation of DNA in order to modify an organism or population of organisms. They can take over the cell by injecting their DNA into it like cloning but with altered DNA, which the scientists do in the lab. They can also change just one small part of the DNA. They can reproduce certain cells to make useful substances. Through recombinant-DNA techniques, bacteria have been created that are capable of synthesizing human insulin, human interferon, human growth hormone, a hepatitis-B vaccine, and other medically useful substances. The change in the DNA that removes genetic disorders will make that the person more functional. There are people who believe that there are issues with genetic engineering. They are able to genetically alter animals and sell the meat without labeling it, which may make people concerned. They may eventually alter human DNA to make the perfect human with the best of all traits. People would be opposed to this speeding up of evolution, but in some ways it could be seen as good. Such as people could avoid being affected by a disorder, or they could all have a higher intellect.

1. What could be some possible problems with genetic engineering?

2. What could be some positives to it?

3. Would you support it or be against it? Why or why not?

Pedigree Charts

A pedigree chart is a diagram that shows a family history and represent genetic relationships. It is almost the same thing as a family tree. The more complicated version is used in genetics as a way to determined how a certain genetic disease was distributed through the family. It can also be used to determine where inherited traits (such as attached/unattached earlobes, dimples, freckles, naturally curly/straight hair, hitchhiker’s thumb, color-blindness, Widow’s peak, hair and skin color) come from. Usually genetic counselors will use this chart to help couples/families that are worried about passing genetic conditions on to their children, or people that are concerned about inheriting adult onset genetic conditions.




In the chart, squares represent males and circles represent females. Horizontal lines connecting the two indicate mating. Vertical lines extending down from those represent their children. The oldest generation is shown at the top, all the way to the current youngest generation, which is at the bottom. Any shaded or colored shapes represent the individuals affected with the disease, or simply the people that have a certain inherited trait. Each row is a generation, which is represented by the roman numerals in each picture.




An autosomal recessive disorder means two copies of an abnormal gene must be present in order for the disease or trait to develop. Recessive inheritance means both genes in a pair must be defective to cause disease. People with only one defective gene in the pair are considered carriers. But they can pass the abnormal gene to their children. If you are born to parents who both carry an autosomal recessive change (mutation), you have a 1 in 4 chance of getting the malfunctioning genes from both parents and developing the disease. You have a 50% chance of inheriting one abnormal gene. If a disease is autosomal dominant, it means you only need to get the abnormal gene from one parent in order for you to inherit the disease. Dominant inheritance means an abnormal gene from one parent is capable of causing disease, even though the matching gene from the other parent is normal. The abnormal gene "dominates" the pair of genes. If just one parent has a dominant gene defect, each child has a 50% chance of inheriting the disorder. Recessive inheritance occurs when both matching genes must be abnormal to produce disease. If only one gene in the pair is abnormal, the disease does not show up or is mild. Someone who has one abnormal gene (but no symptoms) is called a carrier. A carrier can pass this abnormal gene to their children.
Here is a video you can watch that explains it a bit more:
http://www.5min.com/Video/Pedigree-Chart-Problem-Review-151018111



Questions:
1. Explain the relationship in this pedigree chart(above), using words that describe generation, gender, parents, children, and who has the inherited traits.


2. In which ways can a pedigree chart help a married couple who is thinking of having children?


3. Is it possible that the pedigree above is for an autosomal recessive disorder? Why or why not?

Blood Types

A blood type is a classification of blood based on antigentic substances found on the surface of red blood cells. Depending on your blood many different antigens may be present on your cells. There are 4 main blood groups A, B, AB and O, of which group O+ is the most common and AB being the least common. The blood type is determined by proteins called antigens found on the surface of red blood cells. If you have the antigen A on the red blood cells then you have got type A blood. When B antigen is present, you have type B blood, when both A and B are present, you have type AB blood. When neither are present you have type O blood.
Another blood group system involves Rhesus factors. The name Rhesus comes from the Rhesus monkeys in which the protein was first discovered. Rhesus factor D, the most important, is found in the blood of 85% of people, they are known as Rhesus positive. The remaining 15% are Rhesus negative. Individuals who are homozygous dominant (DD) or heterozygous (Dd) are Rh+. Those who are homozygous recessive (dd) are Rh- (they do not have the key Rh antigens).

Questions:
1. Why is the Rhesus factor very important during pregnancy?
2. What is the “Universal Donor” and explain what the term “universal donor” is.
3. Is it possible for a person to have B blood types when one parent has type A and one has type AB? Explain or show offspring from this cross.

Blood Types

A blood type is a classification of blood based on antigenic substances found on the surface of red blood cells. Depending on your blood group, many different antigens may be present on your cells. Your blood type is determined by a combination from both of your parent’s blood types. One of the main reasons for having blood types is to prevent problems during blood transfusions. If the transfusion goes wrong the side effects can be kidney failure, shock, and in extreme cases death. However, there are tests that can be performed to prevent a reaction from occurring. Cross-matching blood is an example of one of these tests. Cross-matching blood is a way of telling whether your blood is compatible with your donor’s blood. A technician will mix the blood types to check if they form clumps. If no clumps are visible, the donor’s blood will be acceptable.

There are eight common blood types. They are as follows, O-,O+,A-,A+,B-,B+,AB-,AB+. The blood type AB- is the rarest group, 1:167 have this type. O+ is the most common blood type with 38% of people having it. People with the blood type O are known as universal donors and in emergencies can donate to anyone. Also, individuals with the blood type AB can receive RBC’s from any blood type. These individuals are often known as universal recipients.

1. Do you think that someday it will be possible to complete a blood transfusion with any blood type without suffering from a reaction?

2. Why is it that individuals with the antigen system hh can only receive blood safely from other hh donors?

3. Is it possible for a person's blood type to change throughout their life? If so explain how.

genetices (blood types)

Distinct molecules called agglutinogens ( type A blood cells) are attached to the surface of red blood cells. There are two different types of agglutinogens, type “A” and type “B”. Each type has different properties. The ABO blood type classification system uses the presence or absence of these molecules to categorize blood into four types.

Another level of specificity is added to blood type by examining the presence or absence of the Rh protein. Each blood type is either positive “+” (has the Rh protein) or negative “-” (no Rh protein). For example, a person whose blood type is “A positive” (A +), has both type A and Rh proteins on the surface of their red blood cells.
When conducting a blood transfusion, it is important to carefully match the donor and recipient blood types. If the donor blood cells have surface molecules that are different from those of the recipient, antibodies in the recipient’s blood recognize the donor blood as foreign. This triggers an immune response resulting in blood clotting. If the donor blood cells have surface molecules that are the same as those of the recipient, the recipient’s body will not see them as foreign and will not mount an immune response.

QUESTIONS::::::

1) what would happen if the blood donors blood types do not match each other??


2)what is the RH factor? why is it significant?

3) how many different blood types are there and name them all.

Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction is a form of reproduction popular in single cell organisms. Asexual reproduction does not involve, meiosis, so it does not produce sex cells. Asexual reproduction requires less energy because they don’t have to find their mate and fertilize the egg. This form of reproduction allows the species to reproduce faster, multiplying their quantity. Though a problem with asexual reproduction is that the product of the reproducer is exactly like their parent, creating little diversity, so a species could easily be wiped out.

Two major forms of asexual reproduction are budding and binary fission. Budding happens when the “daughter” grows off of the “mother” and the daughter grows into another plant. Binary fission is when an organism splits into two equal halves.

1. Why do you think asexual reproduction is popular among single cell organisms?
2. What are some single cell organisms that use asexual reproduction.
3. What kind of enviroment would be best for asexual reproduction?

Types of Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction is when a single parent passes copies of all of is genes to each of its offspring. Both prokaryotes an eukaryotes can undergo this type of reproduction. The individuals produced during asexual reproduction are clones of their parent. There are several types of asexual reproduction. These are some of the different types:
1. Binary Fission
2. Fragmentation
3. Budding
Binary fission is when a parent separates into two or more individuals of equal size. Fragmentation is similar to binary fission, but in fragmentation the parent separates into several pieces. It is also different because not all of the fragments turn into complete adults during fragmentation. Budding is the next type of asexual reproduction. Budding occurs when a new individual splits off of the existing parent. Usually the bud breaks away from its parent but on some occasions the bud will stay attached to the parent. It is possible for the parent to become the host for a large group of buds.

1. Find two other types of asexual reproduction and explain what they are.
2. After finding these other two types find a plant or animal that reproduces that way and also find one for each of the previously listed types.
3. Explain why it would not be possible for humans to undergo asexual reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction vs. Sexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction is the formation of new individuals from the cells of a single parent. This results in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent. It is more common in plants than animals. Asexual reproduction occurs much faster than sexual reproduction because it does not require the formation of gametes or the need for fertilization. One of the many advantages of asexual reproduction is that when the population density is low, they don't have to search for a mate because they can reproduce by themselves. Some species alternate between sexual and asexual reproduction depending on conditions. Asexual reproduction is much less complicated.

1.) What are the 3 main types of asexual reproduction?
2.) Are there any consequences to asexual reproduction?
3.) Why is asexual reproduction more common in plants than animals?

Parthenogenesis and the future of homosexual families

The term parthenogenesis refers to the growth an development of an embryo or seed without fertilization by a male. This occurs naturally in some plants, invertebrates (water fleas, aphids) and some vertebrates (lizards, salamanders, some fish and even turkeys). Scientists have created mice babies from two female mice. No male mice or sperm were involved. The offspring were all female. How did this happen and will humans soon have the option to create babies without men? And what could this mean for the future of lesbians wanting to have children? Although lesbians are having children through artificial insemination, it is not yet possible for two women to produce offspring that comes from both of their genetic material. Is it possible this might become a reality in the future? The procedure used by the Japanese scientists is currently unreliable because it took 460 tries to conceive one mouse. It has not been proven safe, or even possible for humans to reproduce through parthenogenesis. There is a possibility that, with further work and study, it could become an option available to women who seek the assistance of fertility clinics. The process was more complicated than just combining genetic material from two mice. Basically the scientists created a genetically modified mouse. Researchers are quick to say they do not know if this method can be applied to humans.

1. What kind of reproduction is parthenogenesis?
2. Explain the difference between parthenogenesis and metamorphosis.
3.How does the process of parthenogenesis involve human eggs?

Down Syndrome

Down Syndrome- A common chromosome disorder due to an extra chromosome number 21 (trisomy 21). When this happens people with this syndrome experience delays in mentality and a change in facial characteristics.

Some of the most common misunderstood facts:
Myth - Most children with Down Syndrome are born to older parents.
Fact - Most children with Down Syndrome are born to women younger than 35 years old simply because younger women have more children.
Myth - People with Down Syndrome are severely retarded.
Fact - Most people with Down Syndrome have IQ's that fall in the mild to moderate range
of intellectual disability.
Myth - People with Down Syndrome are always happy.
Fact - People with Down Syndrome have feelings just like everyone else in the population. They experience the full range of emotion. They respond to positive expressions of friendship and they are hurt and upset by inconsiderate behavior.


The following questions may not be provided in the text above, the answers can be found in the following website: http://www.ndss.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=35&Itemid=57

Questions:
1.) What are the two types of Down Syndrome?
2.)During down syndrome,there are two ways to diagnose it. Name and explain the two ways of the diagnose.
3.)True or False- Most people with Down syndrome are institutionalized.

Prenatal Testing

Prenatal testing is the testing of a fetus to determine whether or not it may have some sort of disease of deformity. It is often done in cases where one or both of the parents have, or are carriers of a genetic disease. Prenatal testing is usually done for 3 different reasons. One is to determine whether the baby will need surgery or medical treatment before or after birth, and to have it done in a timely fashion. Another is for the parents to decide whether or not they are going to abort the fetus with a diagnosed condition. The third reason is so the parents may prepare emotionally, financially, socially, and medically for the birth of a child with a severe disability or disease, or for the possibility of a stillbirth.

1. What is one method of non-invasive prenatal testing?
2. What is one method of invasive prenatal testing?
3. What are some specific things commonly looked for in prenatal testing?

Cancer

Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body. Cancerous cells are also called malignant cells. Cells are the building blocks of living things. Cancer grows out of normal cells in the body. Normal cells multiply when your body needs them, and die when the body doesn’t need them. Cancer occurs when the growth of cells in the body is out of control and cells divide too quickly. Depending on the type and location of the tumor, the symptoms will vary. Treatment also varies based on the type of cancer and the stage that it’s in. The stage of cancer refers to how much it has grown and whether the tumor has spread from its original location.

Questions:

1) Are certain types of cancer more common in different areas of the world than others?
2) What are the three most common cancers in men in the United States?
3) What are the three most common cancers in women in the United States?
4) What is the most common cancer related death?

down syndrome

1. How do you get down syndrome?
2. Is there a cure for down syndrome?
3. About how many people are living with down syndrome today?

Bloggin with Jim and Cody...

Photosynthesis is the process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight.  Photosynthesis occurs in algae, plants and many other bacteria.  Photosynthetic organisms are known as photoautotrophs since they create their own food, kind of like a farmer, but then again not so much.  They use carbon dioxide and water, releasing oxygen as the waste product.  Photosynthesis is vital for all life on Earth and promotes homeostasis.  

QUESTIONS:

Who studies photosynthesis?

Could photosynthesis be harnessed for electrical power?

Where does photosynthesis take place?

Maple Syrup Fermentation

As you know maple syrup comes from the sap of a maple tree. In the production of maple syrup you have different grades of maple syrup. How you get the different grades is pretty simple, when you boil the sap in a tree you simply are taking the water out of whats left , the sugar content. Depending on what the tree has been through that is how you know what your grade could and most likely would be. When you are finished with and have gone through the maple syrup process you can either bottle or put the finished product in a barrel. Depending on the type of barrel and how strong the seal is on the barrel is how you know if your syrup is gonna stay good or if it will ferment. Syrup is sometimes feremented on purpose to make maple wine. The Syrup would have to sit for about a week or two before it will start the process of fermentation.

Questions
1. How does the maple syrup ferment?
2. What are the three ways that you can tell if maple syrup is bad?
3. Which one can be misleading?
4. Are you able to grade fermented syrup or sell it?

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is known as the "energy currency" of our body. ATP is a high energy molecule that stores energy we need to do every thing we do on a daily basis. As well as being in every cell in our body (in the cytoplasm and nucleoplasm) it is in every other animal/plant. An estimated 20,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 molecules of ATP is formed in humans every day. In an ATP molecule three phosphate groups are held together by oxygen with a negative charge (normally). Seeing as these atoms are missing a protron the electrons want to find another proton, so the negative charges constantly are trying to get away making it have a lot of potential energy.


QUESTIONS:

1) how does ATP store energy??
2) how much ATP is used in the body daily??
3) what gives ATP its energy storing capability??